Blaut suggests that colonialism contributed to the expansion of capitalism, giving it new forms. The tultuls were messengers, and acted as assistants to the luluais. Henningham and May (1992:1) further maintain: Hundreds have been killed, property worth millions of dollars has been destroyed or damaged, production at one of the world's largest copper and gold mines has ceased, and the political stability and integrity of the largest of the Pacific Island countries has been challenged. In recent years, the traditional right to the land has been challenged, as the government now claims the right of ownership to the nation's natural resources, especially: minerals like gold and copper (Connell, 1992); oil and gas (MacPherson, 1992); forests (Taylor, 1992); and fish (Waugh 1992). As has already been pointed out, this makes the provision of social services like health, education and extension support like agriculture, law and order, road networks, transport and communication by the State, not only difficult, but also very expensive. This system of justice and administration, based on a network of central and regional centres of power, later became the foundation for the creation of the state of Papua New Guinea. With the passage of time, and often as a result of a long struggle, either by peaceful or violent means, nations obtain political independence, which is assumed to mark the end of colonial rule, signified by the exodus of colonial rulers and an end to their dominance and influence. There were seven Districts altogether, three on the mainland and four in the islands. Its defeat simply hastened the process, leading in 1919 to a proclamation and imposition of Australian military rule in New Guinea (Reed, 1983). Colonialism in PNG did not operate only through the work of the expatriate administrators and traders, but also through the work of the missionaries who went out to PNG to change the social outlook of the indigenous people. The knowledge, skills and values they received in western-style schools helped to turn them into members of "new elites"; and it is they who inherited the power that had once been held by the colonisers. The Administrative Head of Papua was called the Administrator. There is a dual salary scale for expatriates and indigenous public servants, and the expatriates are also given other privileges such as free education for their children, return airfares every two years, free rent or subsidised accommodation, and gratuities after the completion of their contracts. Also, discussions of colonialism do not always clearly distinguish between different aspects of the problem: for example, the conditions which led to the emergence of colonialism; the motives for colonial adventure; the approaches and processes of its realisation; and the effects of colonialism in terms of its benefits and problems, both for the colonisers and the colonised (Fieldhouse, 1981). To understand the origins of colonialism in PNG, it is necessary to examine historically the rapid expansion of colonial activity in the late nineteenth century. He did not appreciate the cruelties inflicted by the colonisers on the colonised. Prior to the amalgamation of Papua as an Australian protectorate and New Guinea as a UN Trust Territory in 1949, both colonies were administered from Canberra. Its aim was to bring the opposing factions under a single administrative regime and a system of justice that was, from the point of view of the settlers, uniform and predictable. What began as a dispute among disgruntled landowners quickly escalated into armed warfare between Papua New Guinea Defence Force and the secessionist Bougainville Revolution Army. As already pointed out, Papua New Guinea as a nation was historically constructed to serve a range of colonial interests. After five weeks in the Territory, their assessment was presented in a report that became known as the Foot Report, after the leader of the five member team headed by Sir Hugh Foot, UK Ambassador to the UN. What people are saying - Write a review. In one form or another, many of these beliefs about the role of education in the development of the nation are still subscribed to in PNG. In the view of colonisers, there are no alternative traditions superior to their own. This web site has some of the most comprehensive information on the non-governmental-organisations (NGOs) working in Papua New Guineaa (PNG) and also provides a hosting service for NGOs presently unable to design and host their own sites. And yet, many of the laws that affect people are enacted not by the tribes but introduced and enacted by a new political institution called the Parliament. It shows that traditional education in Zambia served a wide range of functions in society and was characterized by a diversity of institutions, programmes, goals, methods, client groups and teachers. The Augustine Christian model of development assumes that the world is heading towards a major catastrophe that would mark the end of all human evil: the "second-coming" of Christ (Fagerlind and Saha, 1989:28). A Constitutional and Planning Committee (headed for the first time by a Papua New Guinean, John Momis) was established to consult the people of PNG and recommend an appropriate form of government for the Independent State of Papua New Guinea. It requires the formation of a particular power relationship between the coloniser and the colonised. What kind of ideological work does the notion of development do in PNG? promoted through colonial education must be rejected. This pattern of dependency is most evident in the government's expenditure of more than K9 million annually as discretionary funds (Budget Speech, 1993). They have become alienated from their land, and their people; and yet many of them have not been absorbed into the new society of the elites. civilization, including education (Whitehead, 2005). A Philosophy of Education for Papua New Guinea. The two island nation-states are separated by a vast area of oceans, where thousands of tuna fish worth billions of Kina, regularly migrate during particular seasons (Rodwell, 1992). Torres Strait Islanders and the people from the Western Province of PNG regularly cross the border between Australia and PNG to fish in the traditional fishing grounds and to visit relatives (Fisher, 1984). The principle suggests that: Every person should dynamically be involved in the process of freeing himself or herself from every form of domination or oppression so that each man and woman will have the opportunity to develop as a whole person in relationship with others. It assumes that the stages of development are already defined; that all human societies must go through these stages; and that a linear historical order defines the terms in which a society's development must be measured. And, finally, the linear cyclical model rejects the view that development must always be considered in terms of material progress. The main task of the Councils were to involve the people in the development and improvement of their villages. In the Island Region, which consists of small atoll islands separated by vast open seas, travel and communication are also difficult. The Australian Government had to heed these factors, and in 1949, the Australian Parliament passed the Amalgamation Act which made the unification of the territories of Papua and New Guinea possible (Parker, 1966a:249). Foreign debts to the international financial institutions continue to increase which makes the debted countries' economies even more dependent on them. The economic circumstances of most newly independent states are thus defined by a relationship of dependency (Larrain, 1989). It is concerned to promote economic activities designed to generate new employment in the cash economy and at the same time improve forms of subsistence and related traditional activities. What this section has sought to demonstrate is that political independence in PNG by itself has not ended colonialism. It has been noted, however, that Marx did not himself oppose the idea of European colonisation. However, it was not until 1526 when the first landing by a European was made by Jarge de Meneses in the north-west of the island. Every member of parliament receives about K150,000 to distribute in a discretionary way to his or her constituents who have come to expect such "favours". Instead, the contemporary expressions of colonialism are now linked to the global movement of capital and to the activities of large multinational companies. Dependency theory thus emerged as a reaction to modernisation theory and is largely based on the experiences of the Third World countries, in particular those in Latin America. According to this logic, PNG is a developing nation. After independence, the PNG government has found itself trapped within this global economic logic. Thus, PNG continues to place considerable emphasis on the need for foreign investment, permitting the exploitation of its land and sea resources. The first European attempt at colonization was made in 1793 by Lieut. The Papua Act remained in force until 1949 when Papua was amalgamated with New Guinea to form Papua and New Guinea. %PDF-1.6 %���� I want to argue that the language of development has been imported and internalised in PNG through the processes of colonialism, to the extent that most Papua New Guineans cannot imagine a political language that does not invoke development as a foundational idea in PNG politics. It rests on an historical narrative in which the notions of progress and development are assumed to have an essential meaning. Most land is held in customary (clan) ownership and there are difficulties in unlocking land for development purposes. The members of the Councils were elected by the people. It is a society's capacity to exploit the material resources found in the natural environment that characterises its stage of development. There was a reduction in authority of the Administrator, who, in many ways, became merely the rubber-stamp for policies determined by the Department of Territories in Canberra. So, from the point of view of this work, the key issues are: why and how have the notions of development become institutionalised in post-independence PNG? Ideas and concepts do not occur in a vacuum, but are the products of the social, cultural and historical events surrounding them (Fagerlind and Saha, 1989:5). A dependency relationship had been created: the villagers had felt that the central administration would provide the goods and services they needed. Finally, it meant a failure of imagination, an inability to conceive of alternatives to those notions of development and progress prescribed by the colonisers. These traditional attitudes towards land are coming increasingly into conflict with the monetised society which regards land as an input into production. The decision to dump up to 3,000 refugees at a time on PNG’s Manus Island tells us as much about Austraia’s neo-colonial relationship with its former dependency as it does about its racist disdain for the rights of vulnerable asylum seekers. The problem of extensive levels of youth alienation in PNG is arguably linked to these contradictions. Axline (1988: 72) argues: These systems were highly centralised, with most of the power located either in Port Moresby or in the Australian Department of External Territories in Canberra (Ballard, 1981). In 1962, a United Nations Visiting Team toured PNG and made an assessment on the status of the political, economic and educational development of the Territory. It cannot be denied, however, that between the end of the Second World War in 1945 and 1973, when the Territory was granted a measure of self-government, Australia did much to develop Papua and New Guinea; but what remains an open question is Australia's motivations and for whom its investment was productive. The different mission denominations, namely Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Methodist, and London Missionary Society (LMS) established mission settlements, or stations. Colonialism is not only expressed in political and economic forms. According to Marxist thinking, capitalism provides an adequate explanation of colonialism. Algeria: Colonial History 1834- French colonize Algeria after 4 year occupation following a brutal conquest Approach to Colonization: Spread of civilization. The World Bank Report also acknowledged the important and continuing role of the European public servants in educational and agricultural development. While this initiative had a democratic intent, the councillors often became informants rather than decision-makers. It can come in the form of capital or in the form of services, for instance, consultancy provisions, economic advice or technology and human resources. In 1616, Maire and Schouten sailed the northern coast and then across the Bismark Sea to New Ireland. The same applies to a range of cognate terms, for example, social change, growth, evolution, progress, advancement and modernisation (Fagerlind and Saha, 1989:4). The word "Papuas" comes from the Malay term orang papuwal which means "fuzzy-haired man". Religious and moral education: principles and practice 1 Papua and New Guineans thus live in a cultural space that is complex and hybrid (Homi Bhabha, 1994). The Third World countries have needed funds for development. This was considered an interim measure before the final preparation for political independence in 1975. | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate The political independence of PNG will become largely symbolic if the fundamental political and economic decisions are steered by foreigners as advisers, as consultants or as business executives; or indeed if the local political and economic elites--the politicians and public servants--simply become the spokespersons for foreign interests. There is thus a dialectical relationship between the traditions that remain and the trends that are emerging. Each tribe regards itself as sovereign. However, the legacy of colonialism in PNG is not only political and economic, it is also ideological. This mode of thinking exists in the minds of both the coloniser and the colonised, and is expressed through their cultural experiences and practices. There was a tremendous demand for education that was far beyond the ability of the missions to provide. The recipient countries either have problems in repaying the loans or find it difficult to accommodate the economic demands of the donor countries. Some authors (for example, Larrain, 1989; Hettne, 1990 and Spybey, 1992) have gone as far as to call it "a new expression of colonialism". Marsha Berman. This fact serves to highlight the recency of the concept of the nation of PNG. Despite energetic efforts towards the nationalisation of the civil service since self government, maintaining this bureaucratic structure involves the continued employment at higher level of large numbers of highly-paid expatriates. However, these tentative moves towards self-government were not entirely unopposed. In the 1900s, these activities grew in scale and in profits. This chapter seeks to provide a general account of colonialism and development in Papua New Guinea (PNG) as a background to the research on devolution within education. This number increased to 3,623 in 1960 (Downs, 1980). The Aims and Objectives of Missionary Education in the Colonial Era in India 123 emphasized more efforts putting on spreading Christianity and de secularized Government schools. As an academic at the University of Papua New Guinea suggests: ... the Papua New Guineans do not have this spirit of Nationalism. The proclamation was read in Pidgin-English by one of the Australian military officers who stated that the natives were now under a new colonial master, with a new flag, and should therefore swear allegiance to the King of England (Biskup, Jinks & Nelson, 1968). It suggested that the World Bank should survey the country's economic potential and recommend on the measures needed to ensure rapid economic development, perhaps through an emphasis on the construction of secondary industries which would have the potential of producing quick cash returns. They do not see themselves as Papua New Guineans. No longer are colonial activities linked to the desire of one nation-state to conquer another and control its means of production. This gives confidence to the people and their leaders at the local, provincial and national levels--those who are determined to resolve the considerable internal and external problems and take Papua New Guinea into the twenty-first century as a united nation. Australian colonial rule and its legacy tend to be neglected, but as Papua New Guinea marks 40 years of independence the nation is still living with the consequences. Only one or two out of those I have talked to considered themselves as Papua New Guineans. Papua New Guineans now identify themselves with this new name. (Wingti, 1992b:3-4). Through the existing education system, India has produced in the last five decades number of scientists, professionals and technocrats who have excelled in their fields and made a mark at the national and international levels. It continued to receive little attention by curriculum administrators, or schools. Interestingly, in naming localities, colonial adventurers overlooked the indigenous names of tribes, mountains, bays, straits and islands and so on (Biskup, Jinks & Nelson, 1968:20), but chose instead to call places after themselves, their friends, queens or kings, or towns and cities in their countries of origin. Referring to the act of cultural dominance as "cultural imperialism", Martin Carnoy (1978) argues that in cultural terms colonialism invariably invokes the assumptions of racial superiority of one "race" over another, and can thus be considered as a form of racism. The difficulty members have rationalising their own expectations with those of their electors is evident in one debate after another ... A parliamentarian expresses this concern in the following terms: When the people elect me to parliament, they think I own the Bank of PNG. Australian companies like BHP have been exploiting mineral resources in Bougainville and in Ok Tedi (Jackson 1983). Unfortunately, in most instances this agenda turns out to be devastatingly harmful to people and environment. After independence many of these mausmen assumed positions of considerable power, and became part of a new political elite within the regions, with their relationship to the centre largely unchanged. In early 1949, the Australian Labor Government instituted a new plan for Papua and New Guinea which emphasised the need to restore law and order after the disturbances caused by the war and promote the economic and political development of the Territory (Downs, 1980). Superimposed upon these systems of village governance is the continuing political significance of the expatriates in PNG. In both the colonising and colonised nations, there is often a wide range of views about the origins, practices and impact of colonialism. Debates surrounding the concept of development are often clouded by political ideologies. The government of PNG is involved in steering both sectors of the economy: the cash as well as the traditional. The 1990 National Census showed that Papua New Guinea has a population of 3.5 million. The colonisers had, on the other hand, regarded this traditional mode of socialisation of the young insufficient for the social, political and economic needs of a new nation-state. This Agreement had stipulated that Australia was to ensure that the indigenous customs were protected; that their rights and possessions were not taken away from them; that Australia was to educate the indigenous people; and that it was to ensure that the locals participated in running the affairs of the Territory. The University of PNG was also established in 1965, with the expressed aim of providing the emerging nation with an educated elite (Griffin, 1976:100). (See Map 4). It was not that the administration was not interested in allowing indigenous participation, but instead it operated on the principles of administrative convenience. Further, colonisers controlled the modes of production, but would not have been as successful had they not received some support from some sections of the local communities. They felt that: Knowing nothing whatever about tropical administration in a country of mostly primitive people, he sought advice; but instead of going to the experienced administration officials and the pioneer Europeans, he shut himself away behind an extraordinary group of scientists, academicians and New Planners--well-meaning and honest, but thoroughly impractical people--who were thrilled to the marrow at this unique chance of shaping for the eager and unchecked leftist Minister, a new paradise on earth for natives. Wolfers (1993:247) argues: the composition of traditional communities has never been static or absolutely fixed. It suggested that more Europeans might need to be recruited both in public and private sectors to quicken the pace of development. Nandy's account thus challenges the traditional view that only the coloniser is responsible for the act of colonisation and the colonised has nothing to do with this power relationship. Abstract. In the language of post-modernism, colonialism rests on the assumptions of a grand narrative which implies the essential superiority of Western institutions of technology, cash-oriented economy and education system over all other forms. The colonised come to accept as their own the values and practices of the colonisers, either completely, or by modifying the local practices to blend into the structure of the foreign traditions. The desire for an extension of empire became the basis for power, control, domination and reputation in Europe. Yet, we still use the same education systems that oppressed us to educate a free people. These stages are as follows: Stage 1 (traditional society) in which output is limited without the application of Western science and technology, values are fatalistic and political institutions are underdeveloped. Papua New Guinea (PNG) was granted its political independence from Australia in 1975. In this speech, he argued that: Emphasis has been given to responsible development. Firstly, it is argued that Papua and New Guinea is an historical artefact constructed through the processes of colonialism. People demand you to buy them motor vehicles or give them money because they have been your campaign managers or cast their votes in your favour. The problem with the metaphors Fletcher uses to understand development is that they risk clouding the issues rather the clarifying them. For instance, the capital city of Papua New Guinea is named after Captain John Moresby; the great dividing range which divides Papua and New Guinea is named after Captain Owen Stanley; the island of Bougainville is named after Conte de Bougainville; the Schouten Island is named after the sailor Schouten (see PNG Map 3 on early European explorations). The model assumes that all development takes place along a linear scale. Before independence, the expatriates did not work only in the public service, but they were also business people, traders and missionaries, and as such played an important part in the running of the country. These sub-systems are linked and operate harmoniously as part of the System. Balandier (1960:1) maintains that: Colonialism is the establishment and maintenance, for extended time, of rule over an alien people that is separate from and subordinate to the ruling power. But arguably economic interests were more important. Even without its defeat in World War 1, it is arguable whether the Germans would have stayed in New Guinea. Britain's Colonial Administrations and Developments, 1861-1960: An Analysis of Britain's Colonial Administrations and Developments in Nigeria ... finance, defense, foreign pol icy and education plus the practical experience and influence of the political leaders during the period of internal self-government in which the leaders acted as premiers. In particular, the Report criticised the principle of gradualism in educational development. Indeed, it is misleading to suggest that these traditional cultures are somehow unchanged by the colonial presence in the country. The colonial government sought to form different political groupings and establish indigenous leadership in order to assert its administrative authority. Initially, the European explorers were only concerned with mapping the land they had supposedly discovered. To the West lies Irian Jaya, incorporated in 1961 as a new province of Indonesia, but referred to by the local "Freedom Fighters" as West Papua. The differences in views are due not only to different ideological positions adopted by the analysts, but also to their different theoretical interests; such a range of differences often means that different aspects of the problem are studied. It suggests PNG should achieve development through the use of the distinctively indigenous forms of social, political and economic organisation. In more recent years, these functionalist assumptions and the notion of development as applied to nation-states has been subjected to a great deal of critical analysis (Hettne, 1990). Careerism and Dominion embrace those opportunities for mobility and achievement at both the individual and patriotic levels which did not exist at home for gifted people. Colonialist ideologies had basically denied the existence of a traditional education system, and certainly had not legitimised it. Through this system, the whole of New Guinea was, either directly or indirectly, under the control of the German colonial authorities by 1914. And when nation-states acquire power and prestige, they become recognised as civilisations. The main focus of the study is education policy issued from “above”: that is, it is largely an examination of the contribution of Canberra officials and politicians towards education for future PNG autonomy and/or independence. Despite this, colonial education very The consequences of this mode of thinking can be drastic and serious both for the coloniser and the colonised. Any review of established sociology of development texts will reveal the extent to which this controversy has a prime place. (Cited in Pora, 1991:1). In 1972, the name of the territory was changed to Papua New Guinea. Information will be updated on a regualar basis and content can be expected to vary considerably over time. His view suggests that colonialism is about relationships of power through which one group of people rules over another. In Papua, the chiefs did not have the power and influence over their tribes in the manner they did in Fiji. A continuing high level of financial assistance from the Australian government encourages this situation and has created quite dramatic opportunities for promotion for young Papua New Guinean graduates. Land is our social life; it is marriage; it is our only world. ANGAU was a creation of an Australian Labor Party (ALP) Government, whose Minister for External Affairs, Mr Ward, sought to re-orient Australian policies in Papua and New Guinea away from economic exploitation to a focus on the welfare of the indigenous people. There was considerable debate within Australia about how it might define the scope of its relationship with the Territory of Papua and New Guinea, for Australia clearly faced a number of political dilemmas between its economic interests on the one hand, and its humanitarian commitments to the UN on the other. 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