[95] At the same time, the period also saw the emergence of the first permanent armies. Allmand (1998), p. 455; Hollister, p. 363; Koenigsberger, pp. – Cities in Italy were rediscovering the influence of Greek and Roman culture. [129] Among the innovations of the period were new forms of partnership and the issuing of insurance, both of which contributed to reducing the risk of commercial ventures; the bill of exchange and other forms of credit that circumvented the canonical laws for gentiles against usury and eliminated the dangers of carrying bullion; and new forms of accounting, in particular double-entry bookkeeping, which allowed for better oversight and accuracy. [124] Portuguese and Spanish explorers found new trade routes – south of Africa to India, and across the Atlantic Ocean to America. [171] In Italy, where the Provençal troubadours had also found refuge, the corresponding period goes under the name of trecento, and the leading composers were Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna and Francesco Landini. [10] To Huizinga, whose research focused on France and the Low Countries rather than Italy, despair and decline were the main themes, not rebirth. The King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary led the largest army of mercenaries of the time, The Black Army of Hungary, which he used to conquer Bohemia and Austria and to fight the Ottoman Empire. [11][12], Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis. [88] Once properly managed, this weapon gave them a great advantage over the French in the Hundred Years' War. They also begin to lay the foundations of what England would be like. Everyman receives Death's summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself to necessity. [33] The emergence of Joan of Arc as a military leader changed the course of war in favour of the French, and the initiative was carried further by King Louis XI. They also strengthen ties with the Church, in order to legitimize themselves more and more as absolute power. Koenigsberger, p. 332; MacCulloch, p. 36. THE MIDDLE AGES (1066-1485) Perhaps the most famous date in British history is 1066, when William the First (William the Conqueror) invaded England with an army of soldiers from Normandy (in north-west France).The Normans were originally Vikings, who had moved to north France in about AD 900. Allmand (1998), p. 754; Koenigsberger, p. 323. [83], Up until the mid-14th century, Europe had experienced steadily increasing urbanisation. Medieval literature is a broad subject, encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe and beyond during the Middle Ages (that is, the one thousand years from the fall of the Western Roman Empire ca. [83] Yet at the same time, women were also vulnerable to incrimination and persecution, as belief in witchcraft increased. 286, 291. It is often considered to begin in 1300, though some scholars look at the mid- to late-fifteenth century as the beginning of the end. [151], The ideas of the Italian Renaissance were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries. 152–153; Cantor, p. 508; Koenigsberger, p. 345. In recent years, the majority of historiographical currents has in turn divided this Late Middle Ages into two parts. [89], The introduction of gunpowder affected the conduct of war significantly. [45] The union, and the conversion of Lithuania, also marked the end of paganism in Europe.[46]. 350–1; Koenigsberger, p. 232; McKisack, p. 40. 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